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INFLUENCE OF TEMPERAMENT AND ANXIETY ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
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Doug
H. Han1, Joo H. Kim3, Young
S. Lee4, Soo Joeng Bae1,2,
Soo Jin Bae1,2, Hyung J.
Kim1,2, Min Y. Sim1, Young
H. Sung1 and In Kyoon Lyoo1 |
1Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Seoul National University
Medical School, South Korea. 2Interdisciplinary Program for Neurosciences,
College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, South Korea. 3Department
of Neuropsychiatry, National Health Insurance Corporation Ilsan Hospital,
South Korea. 4Department of Psychiatry Chung-Ang University Medical School,
South Korea.
| Received |
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13 March 2006 |
| Accepted |
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04
July 2006 |
| Published |
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01
September 2006 |
©
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2006) 5, 381 - 389
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| ABSTRACT |
| Our research aimed to conduct basic descriptions of temperamental
traits and the level of state and trait anxiety of young male athletes,
and to compare them by type of sports. Study participants were 277
athletes and 152 non-athletes who were all high school boys. The Korean
version of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) was used
for checking temperamental traits while the Korean version of the
State and Trait Anxiety Inventory form Y (STAI-KY) was used to estimate
anxiety levels. Harm Avoidance score of athletes was higher than that
of non-athletes. Harm Avoidance score of golfers was lowest and that
of swimmers was highest. The state anxiety score of baseball players
was lowest and that of Taekwondo players was highest. The trait anxiety
score of baseball players was also lowest and that of golfers was
highest. Both trait and state anxieties of the 'winner' group were
lower than those of the 'no winner' group. While prior research mainly
focused on athletes' environment and phenotypic characteristics, we
studied the pattern of temperaments in athletes along with its potential
influence on athletic performance.
KEY
WORDS: Temperament, TCI, state, trait, anxiety, performance.
|
| INTRODUCTION |
The genetic markers with evidence of association or linkage with
a performance or fitness phenotype in active people, in adaptation
to acute exercise, or for training-induced changes have been reported
to be related with the genetic map of all autosomes and the X chromosome
(Wolfarth, 2005).
Also, there seems to be some factors that derive the overall development
of athletic body and mind (Begel, 1992).
According to the Lane and Terry, 2000,
affective states have been considered as important factors in physical
activity and exercise.
In addition, have been known to be more sensitive to stress than non-athletes,
when they met the condition of separation and loss (Little, 1969).
Watson and Pulford, 2004 found that amateur athletes scored higher on Extroversion
and lower on Neuroticism in personality and higher on Psychoticism.
Several studies have shown a link between personality and outcomes
including performance (Judge, 1998; Tokar et al., 1998),
career success (Hanson, 1967) and job satisfaction
(Hellstadt, 1987). According to the Eysenck's study (1982),
several factors including sports type, the playing position in the
team, and the level of performance should be considered in conducting
the research regarding associations between personality and physical
exercise.
Based on previous findings, we planed to assess the temperamental
patterns of athletes. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI)
developed by Cloninger, 1986
was used to evaluate the temperamental traits of Harm Avoidance (HA),
Novelty Seeking (NS), Reward Dependence (RD) and Persistence. The
possible underlying genetic and neuroanatomical bases of the observed
variation in these dimensions were reviewed and considered in relation
to adaptive responses to environmental factors.
Those four factors have temperamental characters which are genetically
independent from one another, moderately heritable, and stable across
time (Cloninger et al., 1991).
Usually, Novelty Seeking is related with behavioral activation, impulsivity,
and quick tempered, while Harm Avoidance is associated with behavioral
inhibition, cautiousness, and apprehensiveness. Reward Dependence
explained continuing behaviors that have been previously associated
with reinforcement and maintained on other's approval. Finally, persistence
involves a heritable bias towards continuing and persevering without
reward.
Cloninger et al. (1993)
proposed that each temperament dimension is controlled by neurotransmitter
in a complex network of brain connections: Novelty Seeking is regulated
by dopaminergic activity and Harm Avoidance and Reward Dependence
are controlled by serotonergic and noradrenergic activity. In accordance
with Cloninger's model, Positron Emission Tomography studies shown
that 'Novelty Seeking (behavioral activation)' was related to dopamine
system in normal person and substance abusers (Compton et al., 1996;
Suhara et al., 2001;
Wiesbeck et al., 1995).
In addition, Peirson et al. (1999)
suggested that serotonin system was associated with Harm Avoidance
(behavioral inhibition).
According to prior reports that stress seemed to be associated with
psychological dysfunction and drop-outs, the estimation of sports-related
anxiety for young athletes would be valuable in finding out a hazard
factor to athletes' performance and a help in promoting strategies
that may alleviate psychological stress during sports activities (Ommundsen,
1992;
Robinson and Carron, 1982).
The Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) has been widely
used for estimating anxiety (Spielberger, 1966).
In STAI, state anxiety is an emotional state consisting of fear or
apprehension while trait anxiety refers to a predisposition to perceive
situations as potentially threatening (Spielberger, 1966). In similar dynamic, we speculated that anxious athletes
with distorted perception would be more sensitive and irritable in
competitive arenas.
The current study aimed to make a basic description of temperamental
trait and the level of state and trait anxiety in young male athletes.
We also compared differences in anxiety and personality by the type
of sports. |
| METHODS |
|
Participants
Study participants were 277 athletes and 152 non-athletes who were
all boys at high schools (mean age = 17.36 ± 2.99). Athletes were
selected from the roster of Korean Sport Council & Korean Olympic
committee (KSC & KOC) division high schools in Seoul, Kyungki,
and Kangwon, South Korea. The protocol of this study was approved
by the Ethics Committee of Chun-Cheon National Hospital. For the
screening of psychiatric problems, Symptom Checklist-90-Revision
(Kim et al., 1984) was used. Type of sports was classified according to
Bäckmand et al.'s classification (Bäckmand et al., 2001): anerobicity (aerobic, anaerobic, or both); team versus
individual sports. Other classification includes: endurance [long
distance running (n = 22)], combat power sports [Taekwondo (n =
28), Korean wrestling, i.e., Ci-reum (n = 20), and Judo (n = 47)]
and individual power sports [throwing sports (n = 29) including
javelin, discus, shot put], swimming (n = 27), and golf (n = 38).
Team sports included soccer (n = 20), baseball (n = 28) and rugby
(n = 18). Athletes were also divided into the 'winner' group (n
= 110), who had the experience of the 1st or final winner and 'no
winner' group where athletes have not had that winning experience
(n = 167).
Measures
Trait analysis
The Korean version of the TCI was used (Sung et al., 2002). It consisted of 240-items of true/false questionnaires
to evaluate four dimensions of temperament and three dimensions
of character. The reliability of this tool had previously been reported
(Sung et al., 2002). In accordance with the aims of this study, we analyzed
only four temperament dimensions as indicated.
Anxiety analysis
The Korean version of the STAI form Y (STAI-KY) was used to estimate
state and trait anxiety levels (Cho, 1989). In this scale, 40 questions about anxiety classified
into two factors, state anxiety with 20 items and trait anxiety
with 20 items.
Analysis of data
Demographic and clinical variables involving continuous and categorical
data were compared using independent t-tests and chi-square tests,
respectively. TCI and anxiety of athletes were compared according
to the type and classification of sports. The correlation of anxiety
with TCI was tested with Pearson correlation analysis. Logistic
regression models were used to see whether anxiety, four domains
of TCI and the duration of participating in sports could predict
the 'winning' experience. Statistical significances were defined
at an alpha level of 0.05 and two tailed.
|
| RESULTS |
|
Demographic characteristics
There were no significant differences of demographic variables between
the athletes and non-athletes with regard to age, duration of participating
in sports, and frequency of being a winner (Table 1).
TCI characteristics in athletes
Harm Avoidance score of athletes was higher than that of non-athletes
while there were no differences in other temperaments between groups
(18.2 ± 5.9 and 16.7 ± 5.9, respectively). Endurance sports showed
highest Novelty Seeking (23.0 ± 3.7) and lowest Persistence score
(3.2 ± 1.6) among four types of sports (endurance, power/combat,
power/individual, and team sports) (Table 2). Specifically, Taekwondo players (17.1 ± 3.1)
were lowest and throwers (24.2 ± 6.4) were highest in Novelty Seeking.
Long distance runners (3.2 ± 1.6) were lowest and Ci-reum (6.0 ±
0.7) players were highest for Persistence (Table 2). Golfers (14.7 ± 6.3) were lowest and swimmers
(21.7 ± 3.9) were highest in Harm Avoidance.
Characteristics of anxiety in athletes (Table 2)
Levels of both trait and state anxiety of the athletes were higher
than those of non-athletes. The state and trait anxiety scores of
team sports were lower than that of any of the other three main
type of sports (p < 0.05). When state anxiety was compared among
each type of sports (p < 0.05): the state anxiety score of baseball
players was lowest. This value was even lower than that of non-athletes.
Taekwondo players had highest state anxiety levels.
When trait anxiety was compared among each type of sports (p <
0.05): Baseball players had lowest trait anxiety while golfers had
highest scores.
Correlation of anxiety levels and scales of
TCI (Table 3)
In the athlete group, trait anxiety was correlated with state anxiety.
Harm Avoidance was correlated with both state and trait anxieties.
In the power/combat sports group, Reward Dependence was correlated
with state anxiety. In power/individual sports group, Harm Avoidance
was related with state anxiety.
Reward Dependence was negatively correlated with
state and trait anxiety. Persistence was correlated with trait anxiety.
In the team sports group, NS was correlated with state anxiety.
Harm Avoidance was correlated with both state and trait anxieties.
Persistence was negatively correlated with trait anxiety.
Comparison of anxiety levels and TCI between
'winner' group and 'no winner' group (Table
4)
'Winner' group (n = 110) means athletes who had the experience of
being the most valuable player (MVP), the best player in his position
or the final winner in his sports category. In contrast, "no
winner" (n = 167) group means athletes who did not have those
experiences. The matches or games in which athletes participated
included 1) the yearly Korean national sports festival for adolescents,
2) the quarterly Korean national tournament for high school students,
and 3) the bimonthly 'association cups' for adolescents that were
supported by the Korean Sport Council and Korean Olympic committee.
In the team sports, the 'winner' group was limited to the best eleven
or nine depending on sports category. The duration of participating
in sports and frequency of winner experience in winner group were
4.16 ± 1.13 years and 3.39 ± 1.82. In all athlete groups, 'winner'
group had lower trait and state anxieties than 'no winner' group
(winner vs no winner: 47.8 ± 13.4 vs 51.4 ± 14.1, by 7.5%; 47.0
± 15.2 vs 50.7 ± 12.1, by 7.8%, respectively).
Reward Dependence and Persistence score of the winner group were
higher than those of no winner group (winner vs no winner: 15.4
± 3.2 vs 14.4 ± 3.3; 4.9 ± 1.8 vs 4.4 ± 1.8, respectively). The
predictors for the winner group were Persistence of the TCI temperaments
and the duration of participating in sports of sports-related history
(odd ratio (OR) = 1.17, p = 0.02 and OR = 1.29, p = 0.03, respectively).
In the endurance sports group, the identification of predictors
for the winner group could not be performed in the regression analyses
due to the small sample size. In power/combat sports group, the
predictors for the winner group were Novelty Seeking of TCI and
trait anxiety at a marginally significant level (OR = 1.19, p <
0.01 and OR = 0.95, p = 0.04, respectively, Table
5).
In power/individual sports group, the predictor items for the winner
group were Persistence of TCI trait anxiety (at a marginal level)
and the duration of participating in sports (OR = 1.25, p = 0.01;
OR = 0.96, p = 0.03; OR = 1.51, p = 0.03, respectively,Table 5).
|
| DISCUSSION |
In our research, the athletes group showed higher
Harm Avoidance scores than non-athlete group. Individuals who are
higher than average in Harm Avoidance are characterized as cautious,
fearful, inhibited and apprehensive (Cloninger, 1986). These traits are thought to reflect variation in punishment
and behavioral inhibition system of the brain (Cloninger, 1986; Cloninger et al., 1993). This result was related with Cooper's report (1969) and Saint-Phrad et al.'s (1999)
assumption. Cooper, 1969 suggested that athletes wanted higher degree of emotional
stability and seemed more socially adjusted compared with non-athletes.
According to Saint-Phard et al., athlete's low competence score reflected
a self-critical or perfectionistic style that athletes resorted to
measure their athletic abilities and, possibly, themselves. Taken
together, we can suggest that athletes may have the fragile trait
which is sensitive to punishment and blame.
It is noteworthy that long distance runners had highest Novelty Seeking
and lowest Persistence score than athletes in any other main sports
groups. Individuals who had higher Novelty Seeking scores were impulsive,
explorative, fickle, excitable and quick-tempered (Cloninger, 1986; Cloninger et al., 1993). These results, however, were different to those from
previous studies. Morgan et al., 1988
found that male distance runners suffered less from stress, depression,
anger, and tiredness than an average person. Egloff and Gruhn (1996)
proposed that
endurance athletes had extroversive and sociable trait, which may
influence the choice of sport). Extroversion is characterized by sociable,
controlled impulsiveness, and optimistic (Watson and Pulford, 2004).
Bäckmand et al., 2001
insisted that endurance sport athletes had lower neuroticism scores
than other sport athletes. Although this discrepancy might be due
to the cohort effect of our long distance runners as well as differences
of trait anxiety and environment, we think that the NS trait of pursuit
of potential rewards and active avoidance of monotony may make the
athlete run in boring and monotonous track.
Bäckmand and Kazen (1994)
reported that controlled type sport athletes with high demands on
energy regulation (long-distance runners and rowers) suffer from failure-related
state orientation or the failure motive. This tendency may be related
with Novelty Seeking trait in our study participants, since higher
Novelty Seeking individuals easily lose volition when their needs
are not met (Cloninger, 1986;
Cloninger et al., 1993).
In power/combat sports group, the Novelty Seeking trait of impulsiveness,
excitability, and exploration were comparable to that in O'sullivan's
report (O'sullivan et al., 1998).
They showed that body contact sports participants showed high sensation-seeking
and aggressiveness.
In the current study, the athletic group had higher trait anxiety
than non-athletes. This trait anxiety was correlated with Harm Avoidance
(Cloninger, 1986;
Cloninger et al., 1993).
This result was in line with a previous report that athletes were
more emotionally stable than controls, but had higher neuroticism
and anxiety (Mäkelä, 1974).
The trait and state anxieties of team sports players were lower than
any other sports groups. While HA was positively correlated with trait
anxiety level (Cloninger, 1986;
Cloninger et al., 1993),
HA scores were not different among four main sports groups.
Men with higher Harm Avoidance trait have been reported to have lower
energy level and tendency to be easily fatigable, and to require more
support and response (Cloninger, 1986).
It is in line with the report of O'sullivan et al., 1998. They found that athletes in team sports had higher activity
and lower neuroticism-anxiety levels than a general college population.
It might be due to environmental factors which could affect and interplay
with the temperamental trait of team sports athletes. The role of
team members, and changes in roles/playing position, for example,
may provide more frequent personal interactions between team members.
These contacts may provide the proper emotional support (Eysenck et
al., 1982).
In the power/individual sports group, Reward Dependence was negatively
correlated with trait anxiety. Individuals with higher Reward Dependence
were characterized as being eager to please others, warmly sympathetic
and dependent on others (Cloninger, 1986). Athletes of individual power sports were reported to
be more introverted than other groups (Bäckmand et al., 2001). Hanson, 1967 found that individual sports, which naturally involve
evaluations for individual performance than team sports, have provoked
higher stress responses prior to competitions. Consequently, our study
results might suggest that athletes in individual sports would be
more prone to be anxiety levels. Specially, in the golf, we found
high anxiety level. Anxiety had been regarded as the important factor
which divided three forms (optimal, choking, and panic) of performance
failure in golf (Terrence et al. 2005)
In the current study, both trait and state anxieties of the winner
group were lower than those of the no winner group. This result was
in line with Halvari and Gjesme's (1995)
report. They suggested that trait anxiety was related to both pre-state
anxiety and performance errors. Hajcak et al., 2003 proposed that participants with high general anxiety and
worry have higher error-related brain activity relative to both phobic
and non-anxious control participants.
Reward Dependence and Persistence scores of the winner group were
higher than those of the no winner group. Individuals with high Reward
Dependence were characterized as persistent, industrious, sensitive
social cues and personal succor but able to delay gratification with
the expectation of eventually being rewarded (Cloninger, 1986). This finding was associated with Ewing et al.'s (1987)
and Maehr and Nicholls' reports (1980). Ewing et al. found that many elite athletes reported
that they participate in sports in order to please others and to get
social approval. Maehr and Nicholls argued that the achievement goal
of social approval-oriented athletes was to gain approval from others
for trying hard to accomplish the tasks.
Our results showed that the predictor item for the winning experience
in all athletes and team sports group was the Persistence of TCI are
in accord with Cloninger's report (1986) that individuals with higher Persistence were characterized
to continuously conduct tasks without immediate successive reward
or boosting.
Limitations
of study
First, the sample size was not sufficient enough to demonstrate
characteristics of a number of athletic groups. Especially for the
endurance sports, which had the smallest sample size (n=22, 7.9%)
among our sports groups, our finding (Higher Novelty Seeking and
lower Persistence trait) was not in line with previous results (trait
of lower Novelty Seeking and higher Persistence). Second, multiple
comparisons had been conducted. Consequently, readers should be
cautious in interpreting positive findings of the current study.
Third, underlying psychiatric problems and self medication for controlling
anxiety might affect the choice of sport in spite of the screening
of Symptom Checklist-90-Revision. Finally, the fact that the choice
of sports by athletes has also been influenced by cultural, environmental,
and familiar background was not taken into account in the current
study (Sage, 1989).
Strength
of the study
While prior research mainly focused on athletes' environment and
phenotypic characteristics, we studied the pattern of biogenic temperament
in athletes along with its potential relationship with athletic
performance. Also, the level of state and trait anxiety was described.
Our preliminary data may potentially be helpful in designing strategies
for caring and supporting athletes and coaches. Our preliminary
data may potentially be helpful in designing strategies for caring
and supporting athletes. Future long-term studies are recommended
to follow up how the type of sport influence or fortify the participant's
traits.
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| CONCLUSIONS |
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Temperamental patterns
of athletes have influences on the anxiety level and athletic performances.
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| KEY
POINTS |
-
Harm Avoidance score of athletes was higher than that of non-athletes.
- Harm
Avoidance score of golfers was lowest and that of swimmers was
highest.
- Both
trait and state anxieties of the 'winner' group were lower than
those of the 'no winner' group.
- The
trait anxiety score of baseball players was also lowest while
that of golfers was highest.
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| AUTHORS
BIOGRAPHY |
Doug Hyun HAN
Employment: Research fellow in Department of Psychiatry,
Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea.
Degree: MD, PhD.
Research interests: Sports psychology, behavioral science,
neuro-imaging, genetic.
E-mail: hduk@yahoo.com |
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Joo
H. KIM
Employment: Psychologist in Department of Neuropsychiatry,
National Health Insurance Corporation Ilsan Hospital, Kyung-gi,
Korea.
Degree: Psychologist.
Research interests: Clinical psychiatry, behavioral science.
E-mail: kjh2224@hanmail.net |
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Young
Sik LEE
Employment: Professor in Department of Psychiatry, Chung
Ang University Hospital, Seoul, Korea.
Degree: MD, PhD.
Research interests: Child psychiatry, addiction, behavioral
science.
E-mail: hawkeyelys@hanmail.net |
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Soo
Joeng BAE
Employment: Master student in Department of Psychiatry,
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea.
Research interests: Sports psychology, behavioral Science,
neuro-imaging, genetic.
E-mail: sujinbae79@yahoo.com
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|
Minyoung
E. SIM
Employment: Clinical fellow in Department of Psychiatry,
Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea.
Degree: MD.
Research interests: Behavioral science, neuro-imaging,
genetic.
E-mail: minyoung_sim@yahoo.com
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Younghoon
D. SUNG
Employment: Clinical fellow in Department of Psychiatry,
Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea.
Degree: MD.
Research interests: Sports psychology, behavioral science,
neuro-imaging, genetic.
E-mail: yhnsung@yahoo.com |
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In
Kyoon LYOO
Employment: Associate Professor in Department of Psychiatry,
Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea.
Degree: MD, PhD.
Research interests: Behavioral science, neuro-imaging,
genetic.
E-mail: inkylyoo@yahoo.com
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