Table 4. Results of the included studies with participants in active treatment.
First Author, Year Cancer Intervention Sample size (age, years) Treatment Collection Methods and Endpoints Outcomes
Within-groups Between-groups
Schmidt et al. (2018) Breast cancer 12-week

G1: 60 min, 2x/wk; 1 set of 20 reps with a hypothetical 50% of the maximum weight

G2: 60 min, 2x/wk; indoor bike, 10 min warm-up, 25-30 min, and 5 min cool-down; level 11-14 on Borg scale

G3: Usual care

 		N: 67

G1: 21 (53y)

G2: 20 (56y)

G3: 26 (54y)

 		Adjuvant CTx Time points:

Baseline

12 weeks

End of the intervention
Collection methods

Flow cytometry

BD Multitest 6-color TBNK (M6T) Reagent with BD Trucount Beads

 		CD3+ T:
G1 - Pre: 1252.82 ± 422.86; Post: 1010.81 ± 484.96; p = 0.46
G2 - Pre: 1153.40 ± 365.05; Post: 856.00 ± 379.00; p = 0.001
G3 - Pre: 1255.48 ± 340.32; Post: 985.00 ± 323.98; p = 0.001
TCR αβ:
G1 - Pre: 1209.76 ± 411.78; Post: 969.38 ± 473.59; p = 0.04
G2 - Pre: 1112.35 ± 355.27; Post: 820.70 ± 358.57; p = 0.00
G3 - Pre: 1203.64 ± 328.85; Post: 940.48 ± 308.83; p = 0.00
TCR γδ:
G1 - Pre: 42.67 ± 25.96; Post: 43.05 ± 29.74; p = 0.95
G2 - Pre: 41.75 ± 47.66; Post: 35.00 ± 52.45; p = 0.14
G3 - Pre: 53.84 ± 66.48; Post: 45.80 ± 48.65; p = 0.12
CD8+ T:
G1 - Pre: 359.67 ± 156.92; Post: 320.33 ± 208.24; p = 0.13
G2 - Pre: 339.40 ± 173.98; Post: 282.05 ± 152.28; p = 0.04
G3 - Pre: 369.84 ± 150.37; Post: 355.00 ± 170.71; p = 0.41
CD4+ T:
G1 - Pre: 827.33 ± 317.86; Post: 562.86 ± 210.31; p = 0.001
G2 - Pre: 753.60 ± 259.90; Post: 488.75 ± 192.85; p = 0.001
G3 - Pre: 788.60 ± 199.43; Post: 558.60 ± 159.44; p = 0.001
NK:
G1 - Pre: 230.14 ± 118.26; Post: 177.48 ± 118.05; p = 0.53
G2 - Pre: 182.65 ± 82.44; Post: 109.30 ± 42.30; p = 0.001
G3 - Pre: 188.76 ± 79.30; Post: 152.16 ± 99.20; p = 0.05
B cells: G1 - Pre: 191.81 ± 78.78; Post: 25.71 ± 33.09; p = 0.001
G2 - Pre: 172.70 ± 71.93; Post: 12.80 ± 11.07; p = 0.001
G3 - Pre: 183.20 ± 79.71; Post: 20.6 ± 20.08; p = 0.001		 Not significant
Li et al. (2024) Stage II–IV lung cancer patients 12 weeks

G1: exercise health education and exercise guidance (30 min daily brisk walking at RPE 13, 5 day/wk, and two resistance training sessions per week, each lasting 20 min

G2: general health education materials

N: 38

G1: 21 (14 ≤ 65y; 7 > 65y)

G2: 17 (8 ≤ 65y; 9 > 65y)

 		Adjuvant CTx Time points:

Baseline

Mid-intervention

End of intervention

 		Eosinophil percentage (p = 0.668): Ø,
Neutrophil to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) (p = 0.543): Ø;
Platelet-to-lymphocyte
ratio (PLR) (p = 0.430): Ø		 Eosinophil percentage (p = 0.985): Ø
NLR (p = 0.167): Ø
PLR (p =0.668): Ø
Mijwel et al. (2020) Breast cancer

16 weeks

G1: 2x/wk, 60 minutes; 2-3 sets of 8–12 reps at @70-80% 1-RM; HIIT: 3x 3 min/1 min bouts at RPE 16 to 18 on a cycle ergometer.

G2: 2x/wk, 60 minutes; 20 min of MICT, 13-15 RPE; same HIIT as in G1

G3: Usual care

N: 206

G1: 74 (52.7y)

G2: 72 (54.4y)

G3: 60 (52.6y)

 		Adjuvant CTx Time points:

Baseline

End of intervention
Collection methods:

Not described.

 		Not reported Thrombocyte concentration

G1 > G3 (prior to 3rd CTx session) - 95% CI, 0.84 to 54.47 × 109/L; p = .04)

G1 > G3 (prior to the 5th session) - 95% CI, 3.78 to 57.62 × 109/L; p = .019

G1 > G2 (prior to the 5th session) - 95% CI, 0.09 to 52.95 × 109/L; p = .05)
Concentrations of:

Hemoglobin: Ø

Lymphocyte: Ø

Neutrophil: Ø
Incidence of thrombocytopenia

G1 < G3 – G1 vs. G3: OR, 0.27; p = 0.03;

 G2 < G3 - G2 vs. G3: OR, 0.24; p = 0.01)
Chuang et al., (2017) Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

21-day, 2-3x/day

G1: Chan-Chuang qigong intervention; 5min warm up, 15min main course and a 5min cool-down.

G2: Usual Care

N: 96

G1: 48 (55.85y)

G2: 48 (64.54y)

 		CTx Time points:

Baseline

End of intervention
Collection methods:

Beckman automatic blood analyser

 		Not reported White blood cell counts:
G1 - Pre: 4731.46 ± 2074.34;
Post: 6478.33 ± 4222.05
G2 - Pre: 5482.29 ± 3460.63;
Post: 4150.42 ± 2142.67
G1 vs G2 - t = 5.14, p < 0.001

Platelet counts: Ø
Zimmer et al. (2014) Non-Hodgkin
Lymphoma

30 min

G1 and G3: 30 min on a bicycle ergometer at moderate intensity (13–14 RPE) immediately after t1.

G2 and G4: Usual care

N: 36 (26 patients and 10 healthy controls)

G1: 14

G2: 12

G3: 5

G4: 5

G1 and G2 (62.2y)

G3 and G4 (56.6y)

 		CTx Time points:

Baseline

Baseline plus 1h
Collection methods:

Ficoll-based density-gradient centrifugation protocol

Magnetic-activated cell sorting.

 		ΔCD8H4K5: G1: ↑ (p = 0.041) Not reported
Fiuza-Luces et al. (2017) Synovial sarcoma
Ewing sarcoma
Osteosarcoma
Burkitt lymphoma
Neuroblastoma
Hodgkin lymphoma
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma
Ganglioneuroblastoma

The mean duration of the exercise intervention: 17(5) wks

G1: 3x/wk; 60- to 70-min; inhospital; Aerobic training: 30 mins (60 to 70% max HR); resistance training: 30 mins (2 to 3 sets of 8-15 reps)

G2: Physiotherapy

N: 20

G1: 9 (11y)

G2: 11 (12y)

 		Neoadjuvant CTx Time points:

Baseline

End of the treatment

2 months after the end of the treatment
Collection methods:

Multiparametric flow cytometry

Polymerase chain reaction

 		Leukocytes -
G1 - Pre: 8.6 ± 1.3; Post: 5.8 ± 1.9; Detraining: 6.0 ± 3.5;
G2 - Pre: 8.5 ± 1.6; Post: 6.2 ± 1.8; Detraining: 4.7 ± 1.2;
p = 0.756
T cells (%)
G1 - Pre: 67.4 ± 4.1; Post: 55.2 ± 5.5; Detraining: 53.4 ± 5.7; G2 - Pre: 50.5 ± 6.3; Post: 56.2 ± 7.7; Detraining: 57.2 ± 4.0; p = 0.933
B cells (%):
G1 - Pre: 14.8 ± 2.9; Post: 8.1 ± 3.9; Detraining: 13.1 ± 4.5;
G2 - Pre: 13.1 ± 2.4; Post: 3.5 ± 1.0; Detraining: 4.1 ± 1.5;
p = 0.013
NK cells (%):
G1 - Pre: 7.1 ± 2.0; Post: 16.9 ± 2.6; Detraining: 16.4 ± 3.5;
G2 - Pre: 11.3 ± 2.5; Post: 14.5 ± 2.2; Detraining: 17.6 ± 2.2; p = 0.007
NK cell cytotoxicity:
Ratio 8:1
G1 - Pre: 31.8 ± 5.0; Post: 22.6 ± 4.7; Detraining: 21.3 ± 4.3;
G2 - Pre: 19.4 ± 4.0; Post: 9.7 ± 3.6; Detraining: 12.7 ± 5.4;
p = 0.144
Ratio 4:1
G1 - Pre: 21.9 ± 4.0; Post: 17.5 ± 4.0; Detraining: 23.4 ± 2.3;
G2 - Pre: 15.4 ± 3.1; Post: 13.0 ± 3.2; Detraining: 19.6 ± 5.9; p = 0.482
Ratio 2:1
G1 - Pre: 17.9 ± 3.9; Post: 14.0 ± 3.1; Detraining: 19.9 ± 2.7;
G2 - Pre: 12.5 ± 2.4; Post: 11.2 ± 3.2; Detraining: 17.2 ± 5.0; p = 0.326
Ratio 1:1
G1 - Pre: 16.1 ± 4.0; Post: 11.1 ± 2.7; Detraining: 16.8 ± 2.7;
G2 - Pre: 10.5 ± 1.3; Post: 10.5 ± 3.3; Detraining: 14.2 ± 4.7; p = 0.386		 Leukocytes: Ø; p = 0.842

T cells (%): Ø; p = 0.611

B cells (%): Ø; p = 0.185

NK cells (%): Ø; p = 0.398







NK cell cytotoxicity:

- Ratio 8:1 p = 0.038

- Ratio 4:1– p = 0.814

- Ratio 2:1 – p = 0.763

- Ratio 1:1 p = 0.717
Ashem et al., (2020) Breast Cancer (stage 1)

18 weeks, 3x/wk

G1: Aerobic exercises (treadmill, cycle ergometer, or elliptical machine). 1st-6th wks, 60%VO2max; 7-12wk, 70% VO2max; 12th wk 80% VO2max. 1st-3rd wks: 15min, increase 5min every 3 wk; 18th wk – 45min

G2: Usual Care

N: 30 women

G1: 15 (45y)

G2: 15 (45.06y)

 		CTx Time points:

Baseline

End of intervention

 Collection methods:

Phlebotomy

 		Immunoglobulins IgA
G1 - Pre: 230.69 ± 7.33; Post: 255.74 ± 11.27; p = 0.0001
G2: Pre: 230.76 ± 7.31; Post: 225.38 ± 12.26; p = 0.112		 Immunoglobulin IgA
Pre: .98; Post: .0001
Ligibel et al. (2019) Breast cancer

Meantime: 29.3 days

G1: 60-90 min, 2x/wk; 30-45 min of at least moderate-intensity aerobic training; 20 min of resistance training; 10 min cool down and stretching. Total (supervised and unsupervised): 220 min/wk, 40 min of strength, and 180 min of MICT

G2: Mind-body control

N: 48 (52y)/ 46

G1: 26 (52.3y)/ 25

G2: 22 (53.1y)/ 21

 		Scheduled for primary breast surgery Time points:

Baseline

End of intervention
Collection methods:

Radioimmunoassay

Automated chemistry analyzer

ELISA

 		FOXP3+ cells
G1 - Pre: 0.44 ± 0.53; Post: 0.76 ± 1.42;
G2 - Pre: 0.45 ± 0.77; Post: 2.68 ± 3.57; p = 0.08
CD4+
G1 - Pre: 0.04 ± 0.05; Post: 36.57 ± 133.42;
G2 - Pre: 0.36 ± 0.90; Post: 0.80 ± 0.82; p = 0.64
CD56+: Ø
G1 - Pre: 1.86 ± 2.15; Post: 1.33 ± 2.34; p =
G2 - Pre: 2.14 ± 3.94; Post: 0.90 ± 0.81; p = 0.53
CD8+
G1 - Pre: 1.36 ± 1.38; Post: 1.60 ± 2.51;
G2 - Pre: 1.43 ± 1.13; Post: 1.44 ± 2.08; p = 0.89
CD163+
G1 - Pre: 5.85 ± 5.40; Post: 1.40 ± 1.32;
G2 - Pre: 6.01 ± 7.85; Post: 1.14 ± 1.27; p = 0.85
Djurhuus et al. (2023) Prostate cancer

2 to 8 weeks

G1: 4x/wk; warm-up: 20-25 min of aerobic HIIT; stationary bicycle ergometer; 4-6 cycles of high-intensity intervals for 1 min at 100-120% Wpeak, followed by 3 min of active recovery at 30% Wpeak

G2: Usual care

N: 30

G1: 20 (63y)

G2: 10 (68y)

 		Undergoing radical
prostatectomy		 Time points:

Baseline

Follow up (before surgery)
Collection methods:
Immunohistochemical analysis		 Tumour NK cells –
G1 - Pre: 0.47 ± 0.48; Post: 2.07 ± 1.65; p = 0.004
G2 - Pre: 1.05 ± 1.37; Post: 1.49 ± 1.17; p = 0.396
Healthy NK cells –
G1 - Pre: 0.62 ± 0.78; Post: 1.95 ± 1.48; p = 0.210
G2 - Pre: 4.15 ± 4.50; Post: 2.26 ± 1.59; p = 0.102		 Tumour NK-cell infiltration: Ø
(p = 0.114)

NK-cell infiltration in the healthy prostatic tissue: G1 > G2
(p = 0.046)
Djurhuus et al. (2022) Prostate cancer

Acute (one bout)

G1: Peak power output (Wpeak) test followed by an HIIT bout; bicycle ergometer; warm-up 3 min at 70 W, increase of 20 W/min until exhaustion. 10 min active recovery at 30% of Wpeak; four HIIT cycles - 1 min at 100% Wpeak, and 3 min of active recovery at 30% of Wpeak.

G2: Usual Care

N: 30

G1: 20 (64y)

G2: 10 (65y)

 		Scheduled for radical
prostatectomy		 Time points:

Baseline

Immediately after the Wpeak test

Immediately after the last HI

1h into the resting period

 Collection methods:

Immunohistochemistry

 PT Link		 Total blood lymphocyte count:
G1 - Pre: 1.6 ± 0.4; Post-Wpeak: 3.7 ± 1.0; Post-exercise: 3.4 ± 1.1; Post-1h rest: 1.3 ± 0.3; p (Pre vs Post-Wpeak) < 0.001
p (Pre vs Post-exercise) < 0.001
p (Pre vs Post-1h rest) < 0.001




Tumor NK cell infiltration: Ø
(p = 0.328)
Hojan, (2016) Prostate cancer

8 weeks

G1: 5x/wk MICT; 50-55 min: 30 min aerobic exercise (brisk walking, running indoors or on a treadmill, or cycling); 15 min resistance exercises, 2 sets of 8 reps at 70-75% RM

G2: Usual care

N: 55 (68.5y)

G1: 27 (67.4y)

G2: 28 (69.9y)

 		Scheduled ADT Time points:

Baseline

End of the intervention
Collection methods:

BD Cytometric Bead Array (CBA) Enhanced Sensitivity Flex Set

Flow Cytometer

 		White blood cells
G1 - Pre: 7.09 ± 1.70; Post: 5.35 ± 1.43;
G2 - Pre: 7.61 ± 1.70; Post: 5.68 ± 1.68;
Lymphocytes
G1 - Pre: 1.84 ± 0.58; Post: 1.17 ± 0.94;
G2 - Pre: 2.10 ± 0.58; Post: 1.11 ± 0.43;
Platelets
G1 - Pre: 218.00 ± 55.71; Post: 208.30 ± 40.20)
G2 - Pre: 237.29 ± 39.58; Post: 211.79 ± 42.99;		 Peripheral blood cell parameters: Ø
Rao et al. (2017) Breast Cancer (stage IV)

12 wks

G1: 60min, at least 2x/wk; integrated yoga-based stress: a set of asanas (postures done with awareness) breathing exercises, pranayama (voluntarily regulated nostril breathing), meditation, and yogic relaxation techniques with imagery reduction program.

G2: Education and supportive therapy sessions

N: 91 (49.6y)

G1: 45 (48.9y)

G2: 46 (50.2y)

 		Undergoing
radiotherapy		 Time points:

Baseline

End of intervention
Collection methods:
Flow cytometer		 NK cell % -
G1 - Pre: 9.68 ± 4.28; Post: 11.32 ± 4.92; p < 0.01
G2 - Pre: 10.33 ± 5.61; Post: 8.73 ± 5.55; p = 0.32

Absolute lymphocyte count –
G1 - Pre: 2016.05 ± 768.18; Post: 2041.26 ± 853.73
G2 - Pre: 1792.93 ± 997.22; Post: 1829.93 ± 797.73		 NK cell % - G1 > G2: [F (1, 31) = 5.43, p = 0.03




Absolute lymphocyte count: Ø
NK cells, Natural killer cells; PBMCs, Peripheral blood mononuclear cells; Th1/Th2 ratio, CD3+ T lymphocyte subset helper cell type 1/CD3+ T lymphocyte subset helper cell type 2; NSCLC, non-small cells lung cancer; CTx, chemotherapy; TCR, T-cell receptor; RCT, randomized controlled trial.