Table 2. Risk of bias assessment using PROBAST. Study PROBAST Participants PROBAST Predictors PROBAST Outcomes PROBAST Analysis Overall ROB Applicability (Participants) Applicability (Predictors) Applicability (Outcomes) (Abidin and Erdem, 2025) Low Unclear Low High High Some concern Some concern Low concern (Abidin, 2021) Low Unclear Low High High Some concern Some concern Low concern (de Almeida-Neto et al., 2023) Low Low High Unclear High Some concern Some concern High concern (Altmann et al., 2024) Low Low Low Unclear Unclear Some concern Low–moderate concern Low concern (Brown et al., 2024) Low Low Low High High Some concern Some concern Low concern (Contreras-García et al., 2024) Unclear Low Unclear Unclear High Low concern Low concern High concern (Cornforth et al., 2015) Low Low Unclear Unclear High High concern Low concern High concern (Craig and Swinton, 2021) Low Low Low Low Low Some concern Low concern Low concern (Duncan et al., 2024) Low Low Unclear Unclear Unclear Some concern Low concern High concern (Formenti et al., 2022) Low Low Low High High Some concern Low concern Moderate concern (Ge, 2024) Unclear Unclear Unclear High High Unclear High concern High concern (Gogos et al., 2020) Low Low Unclear Unclear Unclear High concern Low concern High concern (Jauhiainen et al., 2019) Low Low Unclear Unclear Low Low Low Low–moderate concern (Jennings et al., 2024) Low Low Low Low/Unclear Low Low concern Low concern. Low concern (Kelly et al., 2022) Low Low Unclear Unclear Low Low Low Low–moderate concern (Kilian et al., 2023) Low Low High High High Low concern Low concern High concern (López-De-Armentia, 2024) Low Some concerns High High High Some concern High concern High concern (Owen et al., 2022) Low Low Unclear Unclear Low Low Low Low–moderate concern (Razali et al., 2017) Unclear Low High High High Unclear Low Low–moderate concern (Retzepis et al., 2024) Low Low Low Low Low Low concern Low concern Low concern (Sandamal et al., 2024) Unclear Low Unclear High High Some concern Low High (Sanjaykumar et al., 2024) Unclear Unclear High High High Unclear Unclear High concern (Theagarajan and Bhanu, 2021) Unclear Low High High High Some concern Some concern High (Venkataraman et al., 2024) Unclear Unclear Unclear High High Unclear Unclear Unclear (Woods et al., 2018b) Low Low Unclear Unclear Low Low Low Low–moderate concern (Woods et al., 2018a) Low Low Unclear Unclear Low Low Unclear Low–moderate concern (Zhao et al., 2019) Unclear Unclear Unclear High High Unclear Unclear Unclear