|
|
|
ABSTRACT |
Repeated sprint ability (RSA) is crucial for success in team sports, and involves both neuromuscular and metabolic factors. While single-mode training (SGL; e.g., sprint training) and combined training (CT; e.g., sprint + plyometric) can improve RSA, whether CT offers additional benefits compared to SGL or active controls maintaining routine training (CON) remains uncertain in team-sport athletes. This study evaluates the effect of CT versus SGL and CON on the RSA of team-sport athletes. A comprehensive search was conducted in five electronic databases. Thirteen studies involving 394 males and 28 females, aged 14 to 26 years, were included. The random effects model for meta-analyses revealed greater improvement in RSA mean after CT compared to SGL (Hedge's g effect size [g] = -0.46; 95 % confidence interval [CI]: -0.82, -0.10; p < 0.01) and CON (g = -1.39; 95% CI: -2.09, -0.70; p < 0.01). CT also improved RSA best compared to CON (g = -1.17; 95% CI: -1.58, -0.76; p < 0.01). The GRADE analyses revealed low- to very-low certainty of evidence in all meta-analyses. Subgroup analysis revealed that plyometric + sprint training yielded greater RSA mean (g = -1.46) and RSA best (g = -1.35) improvement than plyometric + resistance + sprint training and resistance + sprint training. The effects of CT on RSA did not differ according to age (≥ 18 vs. < 18), sports (e.g., soccer vs. basketball vs. handball), or RSA test type (linear sprint vs. sprint with change-of-direction). Studies showed an overall high risk of bias (ROB 2). In conclusion, CT may be improving team-sport athletes' RSA more effectively than SGL (small effect size) and CON (large effect size), particularly when CT involves plyometric + sprint training. |
Key words:
Physical fitness, athletic performance, plyometric exercise, team sports, resistance training
|
Key
Points
- Combined strength (CT) improved repeated sprint ability (RSA) performance compared to single-mode training (SGL) and active controls maintaining routine training (CON).
- This study recommends that coaches prioritize the incorporation of combined training strategies into athletes' training regimens to optimize RSA development, especially emphasizing PT (e.g., horizontal or vertical, unilateral, or bilateral, or drop jumps) +ST (e.g., linear sprints, change of direction sprints, repeated sprints, high-intensity interval sprints) combinations.
- The favoring effects of CT were noted across different ages and sports. The RSA tests involving linear and non-linear sprints seem equally sensitive to examine the effects of CT.
|
Team sports such as soccer, basketball, rugby, and handball, exhibit typical intermittent characteristics, with alternating high-intensity activities (e.g., running, jumping, sprinting, and changing of directions) and periods of lower-intensity activities (e.g., jogging and walking) (Stølen et al., 2005; Bradley et al., 2009; Austin et al., 2013; Castagna et al., 2018). Athletes in team sports are required to repeatedly perform short-duration (explosive) sprints (≤ 10 s) and maintain optimal average sprint performance with a relatively short recovery times (≤ 60s) (Glaister, 2005; Spencer et al., 2005; Carling et al., 2012). This ability is known as repeated sprint ability (RSA) (Girard et al., 2011). In the Australian Football League, players execute three high-intensity efforts every 60 s, with elite players averaging a minimum of one sprint per minute (Brewer et al., 2010). In soccer, numerous scoring opportunities frequently emerge following a series of maximal effort sprints, underscoring the significance of superior RSA in goal scoring (Faude et al., 2012). Although technical and tactical factors predominantly dictate overall performance in team sports, enhancing RSA can positively affect an athlete's physical performance during critical match stages (Buchheit et al., 2010d; Turner and Stewart, 2013; Schimpchen et al., 2016). Consequently, to fulfill the ongoing demands for high-intensity sprints throughout a match, team-sport athletes require exceptional RSA (Padulo et al., 2015). RSA is a complex physical requirement for team-sport athletes, influenced by neuromuscular factors such as neural drive, motor unit recruitment, muscle activation, and proprioceptive input. (Bishop et al., 2011; Buchheit and Mendez-Villanueva, 2014). It is also influenced by metabolic factors including phosphocreatine recovery, lactate H+ buffering, and anaerobic capacity (Gabbett, 2007; Girard et al., 2011). Therefore, improving RSA performance depends on a combination of interacting factors (Rampinini et al., 2009; Krustrup et al., 2010). Studies indicate that targeted training, including plyometric (PT) (Negra et al., 2020; Chaabene et al., 2021) and resistance training (RT) (Edge et al., 2006; Hill-Haas et al., 2007), can improve RSA by enhancing neuromuscular function, such as muscle strength and motor unit recruitment, and boosting running economy (Radnor et al., 2018; Støren et al., 2008). Additionally, interval sprint and repeated sprint training (Mohr et al., 2007; Buchheit et al., 2010b; Hoffmann et al., 2014) can increase the capacity for sustained high-intensity efforts, augment aerobic capacity, and improve phosphocreatine resynthesis, addressing metabolic constraints (Schneiker et al., 2008; Buchheit et al., 2010c). Although different training methods can address these limiting factors (related to RSA), the high density of competitions in team sports seasons makes it challenging to implement these methods independently. However, combined training (CT) integrates different training methods more efficiently, enhancing multiple physical qualities. CT is an increasingly popular program, with the most common type being complex training, which typically includes high-load RT and low-load explosive PT within the same session (often set-by-set) (Ebben, 2002). This approach is more effective at enhancing speed, strength, and power compared to performing RT or PT alone (Ronnestad et al., 2008; Guadalupe-Grau et al., 2009; Zghal et al., 2019). However, CT may include various combinations of training methods from RT, speed drills, aerobic endurance training, power training, and other methods, all of which can improve performance to varying degrees (Ribeiro et al., 2021). Performance improvements may be attributed to the conditioning activity, usually a high-load resistance training exercise that increase skeletal muscle excitation following the stimulus, thus enhancing subsequent training performance (e.g., post-activation performance enhancement - PAPE) (Prieske et al., 2020). For instance, an acute physiological, mechanical, or psychological response to a set of high-intensity deep squats with high loads (at relatively slow speeds) may enhance strength and/or speed in subsequent low-load, high-velocity exercises (e.g., sprints or jumps) (Cormier et al., 2022). Thus, the chronic performance gains from CT may result from potentiated acute responses to training sets. Regarding the effect of CT on RSA in team-sport athletes, Beato et al. (2018) showed that combined sprint training (ST) and PT improved sprinting performance compared to isolated ST in young soccer players (range: -0.51 to -0.29 vs. -0.22 to -0.15, for 10 m, 20 m, and 40 m intervals). Similarly, PT + RT has proven effective in increasing Neuromuscular performance (20-m sprint, Squat Jump [Power, velocity, force and height]) (Fischetti et al., 2019). Additionally, PT + RT + ST can improve repeated sprint mean and best time (Spineti et al., 2016; Hammami et al., 2019a). Conversely, sprint speed was reduced after PT+RT (Kobal et al., 2017), with no RSA enhancement after RT+PT+ST (Hammami et al., 2017). Therefore, research results have shown inconsistency regarding the potential of CT to enhance RSA. To date, only Thapa et al. (2022) have systematically reviewed the effect of CT on RSA in soccer players, and reported a non-significant effect. However, the systematic review included only three studies (two from the same research team), and included very specific CT interventions (i.e., contrast format) (Thapa et al., 2022). Although other meta-analysis have investigated the effects of CT on specific populations such as basketball (Uysal et al., 2023) and soccer players (Oliver et al., 2023), comprehensive analyses of its effect on RSA across various team sports are still scarce. Given the debated effect of the CT program and the lack of meta-analysis addressing CT's influence on team-sport athletes' RSA. A comprehensive summary of the available evidence can help to clarify the role of CT on RSA in team-sport athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the intervention effects on team-sport athletes' RSA among CT, specific controls undergoing SGL (such as resistance, plyometrics, sprint, etc.), and active controls maintaining regular training (CON). Additionally, CT was categorized based on three different types (i.e., PT + ST, PT + RT + ST, and RT + ST) to explore the optimal CT program for enhancing RSA in team-sport athletes.
This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021). The study was preregistered on the Open Science Framework (OSF), with the registration document accessible via the following link: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/2EU97.
Search strategyA comprehensive search strategy was implemented across five electronic databases: PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, SPORTDiscus, and Scopus in this systemically conducted review. Training interventions are classified and defined as (1) strength/resistance training: training exercises aimed at improving the ability to generate maximum external force through high-load, low-velocity movements (e.g., squats, deadlifts) (Stone, 1993); (2) plyometric training: training exercises aimed at improving the ability to effectively utilize the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) and explosive transition from eccentric to concentric muscle actions (e.g., drop jumps, hurdle jumps, horizontal jumps) (Taube et al., 2012); (3) sprint training: specific exercises that more closely mimic RSA demands, such as maximum velocity linear sprints, repeated sprint training, sprint interval training, and change-of-direction sprints, aiming to develop optimal sprint speed, recovery ability between sprints, and neuromuscular function (Taylor et al., 2015; Nygaard Falch et al., 2019); (4) combined training: interventions that combine strength/resistance, plyometric, and/or sprint training. The search timeframe spanned from each database's inception to 7 January 2024, complemented by a subsequent search on 1 March 2024. Following the PICOS principle (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Study) (Considine et al., 2017), we identified keywords via an initial trial filtering of literature to delineate terms associated with population, intervention, and performance outcomes, such as "team sports", "invasion sports", "athletes", "players", "training", intervention, "combined training", "complex training", "resistance training", "plyometric", "change of direction", "sprints training", "repeated sprints training", "sprints interval training", "high-intensity interval training. These search terms were amalgamated using the Boolean operators AND and OR. The supplementary material 1 provides detailed information on the search strategy for each database. Furthermore, we explored Google Scholar and the reference lists of all eligible articles and reviews to identify additional relevant studies.
Selection process and eligibility criteriaAll records from the databases were imported into reference management software (EndNote X9, Clarivate Analytics, 2018). Duplicate records were removed by an independent researcher (LHX). The remaining records were then screened based on inclusion/exclusion criteria. The primary researchers (LHX and ZW) conducted a two-step screening process. Initially, the screening was based on titles and abstracts. The second phase involved full-text screening. Study eligibility was determined through the PICOS approach. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are detailed in Table 1.
Data extraction and interpretationThe author (LHX) independently extracted relevant information. The extracted content included author details (names and publication year), study design, participant characteristics (sample size, average age, gender, sport, level), intervention details (exercise type, duration, program, control group), RSA test parameters (distance, sets, repetitions, interval, inter-set rest, presence of directional changes or straight-line sprints), and pre-and post-intervention test data (RSA best time, meantime, total time, and fatigue index). In cases where articles were missing any relevant information (i.e., pre-post-test data), attempts were made to contact the authors via email to request the necessary details. The collected information was presented in tabular form within a standard data extraction model. A second researcher (ZW) thoroughly cross-verified the extracted data. When collecting RSA data for pre-post intervention tests, both RSA mean and RSA total results were considered as the same indicator (since RSA mean is obtained by dividing the RSA total by the number of sprint repetitions). The RSA mean was selected for synthesis if a study reported both the RSA mean and the RSA total.
Risk of biasThe risk of bias was assessed by two authors independently (LHX and LR) as suggested by the Cochrane Collaboration, with a senior researcher (ZMX) solving eventual disagreements. The researchers performed several trials to become familiarized with the risk of bias (ROB2) tool (Higgins et al., 2019).
Certainty of evidenceThe overall certainty of the evidence for each outcome was assessed using the Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) tool (Schünemann et al., 2019). The overall certainty of the evidence was categorized as 'very low', 'low', 'moderate', or 'high'. The grading was completed by one reviewer (LR) and reviewed by a second (LHX).
Summary measures, synthesis of results, and publications biasThis meta-analysis employed the inverse variance method and synthesized main effects using the DerSimonian-Laird random-effects model. The Jackson method calculated tau2, tau, and confidence intervals (DerSimonian and Laird, 1986). We extracted the mean difference (MD), standardized mean difference (Hedge's g), and 95% confidence interval (CI) from each study to calculate the pooled effect size. Given that outcome measures often involve various testing units, and previous research suggests the priority use of Hedge's g (Nagashima et al., 2019), this study uses Hedge's g, corrected for bias with an exact formula for each study, as the effect size measure, notably since most included studies have a small sample size. Hedge's g categories are as follows: < 0.2 trivial; 0.2-0.6 small; > 0.6-1.2 moderate; > 1.2-2.0 large; > 2.0-4.0 very large; > 4.0 huge (Hopkins et al., 2009). Improvements in RSA performance is typically quantified by reductions in time (seconds) or decreases in the fatigue index (percentage). According to the Cochrane Handbook, if a study includes multiple control groups (such as SGL and CON), and comparisons need to be made between the CT intervention group and each control group separately, the sample size should be divided proportionally to enable comparisons among multiple groups (Cumpston et al., 2019). The I2 statistic (I2) was used as the primary source of information to report the impact of heterogeneity, with I2 values < 25%, 25-75%, and > 75% indicating low, moderate and high heterogeneity, respectively (Nakagawa et al., 2017). Subgroup analyses to explore sources of heterogeneity and moderating factors were conducted on results with significant differences from more than two studies. The subgroup analyses primarily focused on the subjects and the intervention plans (Hopkins and Batterham, 2018). Specifically, the moderating factors for subjects were categorized by age into adults (average age ≥ 18) and adolescents (average age < 18), and by sport into soccer, basketball, and handball, where futsal and mixed team sports with only one study each were not compared. The intervention strategies were classified based on CT types: plyometric + sprint training (PT + ST), plyometric + resistance training + sprint training (PT + RT + ST), and resistance + sprint training (RT + ST). Additionally, we conducted subgroup analyses based on the RSA test mode: one COD sprint, multiple COD sprint, and linear sprint. Due to the limited number of studies meeting the inclusion criteria, subgroup analyses on training duration and frequency could not be conducted. Funnel plots (Peters et al., 2008) combined with Egger's test were used to explore publication bias (Egger et al., 1997), with p > 0.05 implying no publication bias. When Egger's test suggests potential publication bias, the trim-and-fill method was employed to estimate and correct for potential publication bias, thereby enhancing the objectivity and comprehensiveness of the results. Statistical analyses and plotting were conducted using the "meta" and "metafor" packages in R (version 4.3.0) (Viechtbauer, 2010). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05, and a trend toward statistical significance was considered when 0.10 > p > 0.05.
Figure 1 presents the PRISMA flow diagram detailing the screening process. The initial database search yielded 1056 publications, and an additional 11 from Google Scholar and previous studies' references. After duplicates removal, 319 publications remained and were screened by titles and abstracts. Thereafter, 68 full-text publications were screened, and 13 studies were included (Spineti et al., 2016; Hammami et al., 2017; 2019a; 2019b; Torres-Torrelo et al., 2018; Sanchez-Sanchez et al., 2019; Aloui et al., 2021a; 2021b; 2022; Brini et al., 2022; 2023; Gaamouri et al., 2023b; Derraa, 2023). Of note, two studies (Torres-Torrelo et al., 2017; Torres-Torrelo et al., 2018) reported analogous data, thus only the study presenting more comprehensive data was included (Torres-Torrelo et al., 2018).
Study characteristicsThe included studies comprised 13 CT intervention groups (n = 185), along with 7 SGL groups (n = 88) and 11 CON groups (n = 149). Table 2 details study characteristics, including participant details, types, and contents of intervention and controls, in addition to RSA testing methods and results. The predominant gender among the study participants was male (n = 394), with a single study including female participants (n = 28). The studies primarily covered team-sport athletes including soccer (n = 188), basketball (n = 94), handball (n = 84), futsal (n = 34), and mixed team-sport athletes (n = 22, a mix of soccer and basketball). The participants were aged between 14 and 26 years. Eight studies utilized a CT type of PT + ST, three studies implemented a combination of PT + RT + ST, and two studies followed an RT + ST. Eight studies employed One COD Sprint, three studies employed Multiple COD Sprint, and two studies employed Linear Sprint. The total intervention duration ranged from 5 to 10 weeks, with a frequency of 2 to 3 times per week.
Risk of biasRegarding the randomization process (D1), although all the included studies were randomized crossover trials, only 2 studies explicitly reported the randomization methods. The remaining 11 studies were classified as having some concerns due to the lack of information on the randomization process. The studies included in this review were classified as having low bias risk due to issues related to the timing of participant identification or recruitment (D2), deviations from the intended interventions (D3), and missing outcome data (D4). In the field of sports training, implementing blinding is nearly impossible due to participants' direct involvement in the training. Typically, the same person serves as both the researcher and the outcome assessor. However, there was no reported blinding of outcome assessors among the 13 studies. This could lead to bias and distortion of research outcomes, decreasing internal validity and credibility. With one individual overseeing multiple aspects of the study, the lack of blinding for outcome assessors may introduce subjective bias, impacting the accuracy and reliability of study findings. Hence, we assessed all studies with a high risk of bias in the measurement of outcome (D5). Selective outcome reporting (D6) was present in almost all studies to some extent. All the included studies (n = 13) had a high risk of bias (Supplementary Figure 1).
Meta-Analysis ResultsRepeated sprint ability mean
Thirteen studies (Spineti et al., 2016; Hammami et al., 2017; 2019a; 2019b; Torres-Torrelo et al., 2018; Sanchez-Sanchez et al., 2019; Aloui et al., 2021a; 2021b; 2022; Brini et al., 2022; 2023; Gaamouri et al., 2023b; Derraa, 2023) assessed RSA mean, involving 13 CT groups, 7 SGL groups and 11 CON groups (total n = 422). CT improved RSA mean compared to the combined sub-groups SGL and CON (g = -0.99; 95% CI: -1.44, -0.54; p < 0.001; Figure 2). High heterogeneity was observed (Tau2 = 0.695; Chi2 = 70.20; df = 17; p < 0.001; I2 = 76%; PI: -2.82, 0.84). The sensitivity analysis indicated stability in the pooled effect size (g = -0.99; 95% CI: -1.44, -0.54; p < 0.001; Supplementary Figure 2). Egger's test showed potential publication bias in the primary pooled effect size (p = 0.015), as depicted in the funnel plot in Supplementary Figure 3. After applying the trim-and-fill method, no potential unpublished studies were identified, implying a balance between published and expected published studies. Both before and after trim-and-fill, the pooled result for the outcome (RSA mean) remained significant at p < 0.001, indicating stability in the pooled effect size. When compared to SGL, CT improved RSA mean (7 datasets; g = -0.46; 95% CI: -0.82, -0.10; I2 = 0%; p = 0.01). When compared to CON, CT significantly improved the RSA mean (11 datasets; g = -1.39; 95% CI: -2.09, -0.70; I2 = 84%; p < 0.01).
Repeated sprint ability bestThirteen studies (Spineti et al., 2016; Hammami et al., 2017; 2019a; 2019b; Torres-Torrelo et al., 2018; Sanchez-Sanchez et al., 2019; Aloui et al., 2021a; 2021b; 2022; Brini et al., 2022; 2023; Gaamouri et al., 2023b; Derraa, 2023) assessed RSA best, involving 13 CT groups, 7 SGL groups and 11 CON groups (total n = 422). CT improved RSA best compared to the combined sub-groups SGL and CON (g = -0.88; 95% CI: -1.25, -0.51; p < 0.001; Figure 3). Moderate heterogeneity was observed (Tau2 = 0.412; Chi2 = 49.51; df = 17; p < 0.001; I2 = 66%; PI: -2.30, 0.53). The sensitivity analysis indicated stability in the pooled results (g = -0.88; 95% CI: -1.25, -0.51; p < 0.001; Supplementary Figure 4). Egger's test showed no potential publication bias in the primary pooled effect size (p = 0.293), as depicted in the funnel plot in Supplementary Figure 5. When compared to SGL, no significant effect was noted for CT on RSA best (7 datasets; g = -0.39; 95% CI: -0.95, 0.18; I2 = 58%; p = 0.18). When compared to CON, CT significantly improved the RSA best (11 datasets; g = -1.17; 95% CI: -1.58, -0.76; I2 = 56%; p < 0.01).
Repeated sprint ability fatigue indexTwelve studies (Spineti et al., 2016; Hammami et al., 2017; 2019a; 2019b; Torres-Torrelo et al., 2018; Sanchez-Sanchez et al., 2019; Aloui et al., 2021a; 2022; Brini et al., 2022; 2023; Gaamouri et al., 2023b; Derraa, 2023) assessed RSA fatigue index, involving 12 CT groups, 7 SGL groups and 10 CON groups (total n = 388). CT did not improve RSA fatigue index compared to the combined sub-groups SGL and CON (g = 0.07; 95% CI: -0.25, 0.38; p = 0.672; Figure 4). Moderate heterogeneity was observed (Tau2 = 0.228; Chi2 = 34.33; df = 16; p = 0.005; I2 = 53%; PI: -1.01, 1.14). The sensitivity analysis indicated stability in the pooled results (g = 0.07; 95% CI: -0.25, 0.38; p = 0.672; Supplementary Figure 6). Egger's test showed no potential publication bias in the primary pooled effect size (p = 0.115), as depicted in the funnel plot in Supplementary Figure 7. CT did not improve the RSA fatigue index when compared to SGL (7 datasets; g = 0.02; 95% CI: -0.63, 0.66: I2 = 68%: p = 0.96) or CON (10 datasets: g = 0.09; 95% CI: -0.25, 0.44; I2 = 42%; p = 0.59).
Moderator variables effectThe effects of the moderator variables are displayed in Table 3. Compared with SGL and CON, the CT type of PT + ST (g = -1.46) significantly and more substantially effects the RSA mean (p < 0.01). The effects of the CT types of PT + RT + ST (g = -0.33) were similar to RT + ST (g = -0.45). Adolescent athletes (< 18 years old) and adults (≥ 18 years old) similarly improved performance (g = -0.97 vs. -1.06, respectively; between-group p = 0.86). No differences were observed between sports (p = 0.35) and RSA test (p = 0.41) (see
Supplementary Figure 8, Supplementary Figure 9, Supplementary Figure 10 and Supplementary Figure 11). Compared to SGL and CON, the CT type of PT + ST (g = -1.35) had a significantly greater effect on RSA best (p < 0.01). RT + ST (g = -0.38, p = 0.18) had a greater effect than PT + RT + ST (g = -0.04, p = 0.84), but the effect was not significant. No significant difference in the moderating factors of age (p = 0.56), sport (p = 0.42), and RSA test (p = 0.37) (see Supplementary Figure 12, Supplementary Figure 13, Supplementary Figure 14 and Supplementary Figure 15).
Certainty of evidenceAccording to the GRADE assessment (Table 4) the quality of evidence varied from low to very low.
The main objectives of this meta-analysis were to investigate the effect of CT on RSA in team-sport athletes and to determine the optimal CT protocol for enhancing RSA in these athletes. The results of the meta-analyses indicate that, compared to SGL and CON, CT improved both RSA mean and RSA best. However, the effect of CT on the RSA fatigue index did not show a statistically significant difference. Additionally, PT + ST seems to be the most effective protocol for enhancing RSA when compared to RT + ST and PT + RT + ST. The effect of CT on athletes' RSA did not dependent on athletes' age, sports type, and RSA test.
Effects of combined training on RSAThis study revealed that compared to SGL and CON, CT enhances team-sport athletes' RSA mean and best time. Previous evidence on CT's effect on RSA was limited. In contrast to our findings, the meta-analysis by Thapa et al. (2022) found non-significant RSA changes among soccer players following CT. This discrepancy could be due to the active control groups, which either maintained regular specific training (Faude et al., 2013; Hammami et al., 2017; Miranda González et al., 2021) or combined RT with a regular specific training (Spineti et al., 2016; Kobal et al., 2017). Regular specific training alone or in combination with other methods (Stølen et al., 2005; Silva et al., 2015;) can influence RSA, masking the CT's benefits. Additionally, the inclusion of only three studies on soccer players' RSA, each with a small number of participants, may reduce the statistical power, potentially leading to inconclusive results. This could explain the non-significant difference observed between the CT and control groups. Moreover, faster linear sprint speed can positively impact team-sport athletes' RSA (Lockie et al., 2020). Studies have shown that there is a small to large correlation between short-distance sprint performance (0-5 m, 0-10 m, 0-20 m) and RSA performance (r = 0.44-0.86) (Ingebrigtsen et al., 2014; Lockie et al., 2019). This suggests that sprint performance may contribute to RSA. The available evidence suggests that CT (i.e., RT + PT) can improve female team-sport athletes' short sprint performance (Hughes et al., 2023). Specifically, substantial improvements were observed in acceleration (i.e., 0-10 m) and short sprint distances (0-20 m). The findings of Nicholson et al. (2021) also raise the level of evidence for CT. They found that CT programs (e.g., ST and strength/jumping-related exercises), were effective in improving single sprinting performance (effect size medium to large), especially 0-10m and 0-20m. Therefore, the greater improvement in RSA observed in this study following CT may be partly attributed to the influence of CT on linear sprint performance. However, given the complexity of CT, it may also be influenced by other factors. Indeed, according to Bishop et al. (2011), RSA performance relies mainly on (1) single sprint performance (i.e., RSA best), that involves underlying factors such as stride length and frequency, and (2) the ability to recover between sprints (metabolic capacity). CT methods focused on enhancing single sprint performance (e.g., strength training) and metabolic capacity (e.g., repeated sprint training) might prove effective to enhance RSA. Strength and power training can improve single sprint performance by several mechanisms. RT can increase the mean work done in a repeated sprint rest (̃12%), and the performance in the first sprint (8-9%) (Edge et al., 2006). Furthermore, RT with high metabolic demand (i.e., blood lactate concentration ≥ 10 mmol/L) improved RSA. The improvements in strength and H+ regulation capacity may enhance RSA (Hill-Haas et al., 2007). Similarly, PT enhanced RSA in young female handball players (Gaamouri et al., 2023a), probably after neuromuscular adaptations allowing greater force production during the concentric phase of movement following rapid eccentric muscle actions, thereby enhancing sprint performance (Davies et al., 2015). Furthermore, ST, particularly after repeated sprints, can enhance athletes' intermittent sprint performance, RSA, and maximal oxygen uptake (Thurlow et al., 2023). Aerobic fitness improvements may help adenosine triphosphate to phosphocreatine resynthesis, and buffer metabolic by-products during between-sprints rest periods (Haseler et al., 1999; McGawley and Bishop, 2015). Therefore, the integration of these training methods may be considered in future CT programs, ultimately enhancing RSA performance. Given that the above studies explain the effects of individually applying these trainings, such as RT, PT, or repeated sprint training, on enhancing RSA, we discuss the potential reasons for CT's enhancement of RSA as follows: Isolated PL or RT programs can induce mechanical and physiological adaptations leading to improvements in the best (first) sprint in a RSA test, with CT (e.g., PL+RT) potentially enhancing such adaptations/improvements (Sale, 2002; Robbins, 2005). According to the principle of training specificity, physiological and biomechanical adaptations to an intervention program are contingent on the specific characteristics of the training (Reilly et al., 2009). For example, PT utilizes SSC muscle actions and may enhance eccentric muscular activation, potentially aiding to specific movements (e.g., sprint, short shuttle runs, and changes of direction) in RSA test (Slimani et al., 2016). Therefore, CT might provide more central nervous system stimulation, thereby promoting better neural adaptations, such as better intermuscular coordination and synchronization of muscle fiber recruitment (Hoffman et al., 2004; Tricoli et al., 2005), increased peak force, peak power, and muscle-tendon stiffness (Haugen et al., 2019), and enhanced running stride and frequency (Lockie et al., 2012). Overall, these factors may increase the rate of force development and the efficiency of the SSC, which in turn will benefit RSA. Therefore, the CT program is an effective training approach for team-sport athletes, offering various options for coaches and athletes to develop RSA. However, further research is needed to determine the optimal combination of exercises to enhance repeated sprint performance.
Moderator variablesRegarding athletes' age, post-CT intervention improvements in RSA were similar between adolescent athletes (< 18 years) and adults (≥ 18 years), with no significant differences. Study suggested that physical growth with age seems to significantly enhance athletic performance (Armstrong et al., 2001), suggesting that training may bring greater benefits to adult athletes' RSA. However, our study revealed similar improvements in RSA performance between adolescents and adults, implying that CT may be suitable for both. Regarding athletes' sports, we observed no significant difference in CT effects among different team-sport athletes (e.g., soccer, basketball, handball). However, the 95% CI ranges for these analyses were large, possibly due to (1) small sample sizes, resulting in less precise statistical analyses, and (2) differences between participants in terms of physical fitness, training background, and competition demands that may have affected the consistency of the CT effects. Future studies are encouraged to apply CT to larger samples of team-sport athletes. Regarding the type of CT, our findings indicate that, in contrast to RT + ST or PT + RT + ST, the PT + ST markedly enhanced team-sport athletes' RSA mean (g = -1.46 [large effect size]) and RSA best (g = -1.35 [large effect size]). To ascertain the reasons behind the superior improvements achieved by the PT + ST, we investigated the effect of each training component combination on RSA. First, a previous meta-analysis on PT in soccer players showed significant improvements in both RSA best and RSA mean (Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2021). These improvements were attributed to increased muscle activation capacity (Markovic and Mikulic, 2010;), greater muscle cross-sectional area and strength (Malisoux et al., 2006; Grgic et al., 2021), and enhanced efficiency of the SSC (Taube et al., 2012; Radnor et al., 2018). These adaptations potentially enhance single sprint capacity, thereby improving RSA. Further analysis of the included studies revealed that the specific exercises within ST, including linear sprints, change-of-direction sprints, repeated sprint training, and high-intensity interval training, all target and improve the neuromuscular and metabolic limiting factors of RSA (as mentioned in the Introduction section). Taylor et al.'s (2015) systematic review supported the efficacy of repeated sprint training in beneficially impacting repeated sprint ability, aligning with Bishop et al. (2011) assertion that repeated sprint training is the most suitable method for RSA enhancement. Moreover, research has demonstrated that repeated sprint training can elevate maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max), with a reported 5.0-6.1% increase following 5-12 weeks of intervention (Ferrari Bravo et al., 2008). Consequently, as aerobic capacity improves, so does the recovery ability between sprints (Gharbi et al., 2015). The significant improvement in RSA observed with CT (PT + ST) might attributed to the acute responses in the early training phase (as mentioned in the introduction section). It is widely recognized that conditioning activity before the PAPE must be as biomechanically similar as possible to the subsequent exercises designed to enhance function (Blazevich and Babault, 2019). This is often related to exercise goals or directions with similar movement patterns (e.g., vertical vs. horizontal oriented) (Loturco et al., 2018). Therefore, exercises emphasizing strength application in similar directions (e.g., horizontal or vertical jumping) are expected to result in acute or chronic improvements in activities where hip extensors play a key role (e.g., sprinting) (Loturco et al., 2018). However, the reason for the non-significant improvement in RSA with the combination of RT + ST and PT + RT + ST is unclear. It may be due to their synergistic effects and interference with the metabolic, determinants of RSA (Coffey et al., 2009). Another possible reason is the limited number of studies available, with only three on PT + RT + ST and two on RT + ST examining the effects of RSA. Future research should focus on conducting more studies in this area. Overall, the CT type of PT +ST bolsters single sprint performance and augments inter-sprint recovery with more training specificity, elucidating its superior efficacy over other CT types. Regarding the RSA testing, we observed that different testing modes did not significantly affect the effectiveness of CT. Direct comparisons between linear and COD RSA testing have indicated that while sprint speeds decrease with the introduction of COD, the overall physiological load may increase due to higher levels of lactate accumulation, potentially influencing RSA test performance to some extent (Buchheit et al., 2010a; Alemdaroğlu et al., 2018). We reviewed Kyles et al.'s (2023) recommendations from their systematic review on RSA testing protocols. For linear sprint testing, they suggested incorporating a 30-meter sprint into RSA testing for team-sport athletes. This recommendation was based on research indicating that sprints involving team-sport athletes typically cover distances ≤ 30 m (Stølen et al., 2005; Rampinini et al., 2007; Andrzejewski et al., 2015). For COD sprint testing, Kyles et al. (2023) noted that most protocols employed a single COD involving a 180° directional change. COD is a very neuromuscular demanding task, elite soccer players change direction frequently in matches, emphasizing the importance of COD in RSA testing (Sweeting et al., 2017; Dos'Santos et al., 2020; 2021). Among the studies we included, 2 utilized linear RSA testing with a 20-meter sprint distance, 8 utilized a single COD test, and 3 employed multiple COD sprints, aligning with the requirements of short-distance and multiple sprinting in team sports. Given the substantial variability in protocol designs due to the lack of a gold standard protocol for assessing RSA, both linear and COD RSA tests may be effective considering the diverse demands of different sporting contexts. This analysis supports the findings of our study: both linear and COD sprints can be utilized to examine the effects of CT training on RSA.
Limitations and future researchWhile this meta-analysis presents interesting findings, it's important to acknowledge its potential limitations. First, the search was limited to the English languages, peer-reviewed publications, and randomized controlled trials, potentially introducing selection and publication bias; though this approach guaranteed the quality of the included literature. Second, it is important to note that most of the samples were derived from national league team-sport athletes; thus, caution should be applied in generalizing the conclusions and applying them to athletes at other levels. Third, owing to the small number of studies fulfilling the inclusion criteria, subgroup analyses involving moderators such as sex, training duration, and frequency were not performed, preventing a more detailed exploration of diverse CT schemes. Fourth, of the 13 studies included in this analysis, only one focused on female team-sport athletes. Future research should concentrate on female athletes and investigate potential gender differences in the effects of CT on RSA or other physical performance measures. Lastly, the included studies on CT interventions varied greatly, and the limited number of studies, as well as the limited number of studies involving athletes from different sports, might have contributed to the heterogeneity in the meta-analysis. The limited study pool and the inclusion of athletes from various sports potentially contributed to heterogeneity in the meta-analysis. Future studies should consider employing network meta-analysis methods and expanding the population and performance indicators included, to explore the effect of CT in comparison to various other training methods on athletes' physical performance.
Combined training, especially incorporating plyometric and sprint training, significantly enhances repeated sprint ability in team-sport athletes compared to single-mode and routine training. These findings support the use of multifaceted training programs to improve critical performance metrics in team sports. Physical fitness professionals and coaches could consider this as an appropriate strategy because it allows for the simultaneous combination of multiple training methods to produce a small to moderate training effect on RSA performance in terms of addressing the limiting factors of the neuromuscular and metabolic capacity of RSA. However, due to the low certainty of evidence, further research is warranted to confirm these results and refine training methodologies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
The present study complies with the current laws of the country in which it was performed. For additional data, please contact the corresponding author. This study was supported by the Shanghai Key Lab of Human Performance (Shanghai University of Sport, No. 11DZ2261100) and the Key Laboratory of Sport Skill and Tactic Diagnosis and Analysis of General Administration of Sport of China (Shanghai University of Sport). LHX, LR, ZW, RRC, ESV, and ZMX declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review. LHX proposed the research idea; LHX, ZW, and LR screened the titles and abstracts and independently performed the data extraction from all sources; LHX conducted data analysis and prepared the initial draft of the manuscript; ESV, RRC, and ZMX assisted with manuscript improvement and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Thanks to Mingyue Yin and Kai Xu for their help in the methodology of the article. |
|
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY |
|
Hengxian Liu |
Employment: School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China |
Degree: MSC |
Research interests: Strength and conditioning; Complex training; Exercise science |
E-mail: liuhengxian@sus.edu.cn |
|
|
Rui Li |
Employment: School of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China |
Degree: MSC |
Research interests: Sensory integration ability; Balance ability; isokinetic strength |
E-mail: wp100331@cdsu.edu.cn |
|
|
Wen Zheng |
Employment: School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China |
Degree: MSC |
Research interests: Training monitoring; Performance analysis |
E-mail: 2321852032@sus.edu.cn |
|
|
Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo |
Employment: Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences Institute. School of Physical Therapy. Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences. Universidad Andres Bello. Santiago, Chile |
Degree: PhD |
Research interests: Explosive strength training effectiveness; Strength and conditioning; Testing and measurement in sport |
E-mail: ramirezcampillo@gmail.com |
|
|
Eduardo Sáez de Villarreal |
Employment: Physical Performance Sports Research Center (PPSRC), Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain |
Degree: PhD |
Research interests: Sports science; Exercise science; Exercise performance |
E-mail: esaesae@upo.es |
|
|
Mingxin Zhang |
Employment: School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China |
Degree: PhD |
Research interests: Performance analysis; Basketball coaching; Sports science |
E-mail: zhangmingxin@sus.edu.cn |
|
|
|
REFERENCES |
Alemdaroğlu U., Köklü Y., Bektaş F., Çelik G., Kocak F., Duffield R. (2018) Comparison of repeated sprint tests in young soccer players: straight versus shuttle primerjava testov ponavljajočih se šprintov pri mladih nogometaših: naravnost proti cikcak. Kinesiologia Slovenica 24, 5-16.
|
Aloui G., Hermassi S., Bartels T., Hayes L.D., Bouhafs E., Chelly M.S., Schwesig R. (2022) Combined Plyometric and Short Sprint Training in U-15 Male Soccer Players: Effects on Measures of Jump, Speed, Change of Direction, Repeated Sprint, and Balance. Frontiers in Physiology 13. Crossref
|
Aloui G., Hermassi S., Hayes L.D., Hayes N., Bouhafs E., Chelly M.S., Schwesig R. (2021a) Effects of Plyometric and Short Sprint with Change-of-Direction Training in Male U17 Soccer Players. Applied Sciences-Basel 11. Crossref
|
Aloui G., Souhail H., Hayes L.D., Bouhafs E., Chelly M.S., Schwesig R. (2021b) The Effects of Loaded Plyometrics and Short Sprints in U19 Male Soccer Players in Tunisia. Applied Sciences-Basel 11. Crossref
|
Andrzejewski M., Chmura J., Pluta B., Konarski J. (2015) Sprinting Activities and Distance Covered by Top Level Europa League Soccer Players. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching 10, 39-50. Crossref
|
Armstrong N., Welsman J., Chia M. (2001) Short term power output in relation to growth and maturation. British Journal of Sports Medicine 35, 118-124. Crossref
|
Austin D.J., Gabbett T.J., Jenkins D.G. (2013) Reliability and sensitivity of a repeated high-intensity exercise performance test for rugby league and rugby union. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 27, 1128-1135. Crossref
|
Beato M., Bianchi M., Coratella G., Merlini M., Drust B. (2018) Effects of Plyometric and Directional Training on Speed and Jump Performance in Elite Youth Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 32, 289-296. Crossref
|
Bishop D., Girard O., Mendez-Villanueva A. (2011) Repeated-sprint ability - part II: recommendations for training. Sports Medicine 41, 741-756. Crossref
|
Blazevich A.J., Babault N. (2019) Post-activation Potentiation Versus Post-activation Performance Enhancement in Humans: Historical Perspective, Underlying Mechanisms, and Current Issues. Frontiers in Physiology 10, 1359. Crossref
|
Bradley P.S., Sheldon W., Wooster B., Olsen P., Boanas P., Krustrup P. (2009) High-intensity running in English FA Premier League soccer matches. Journal of Sports Sciences 27, 159-168. Crossref
|
Brewer C., Dawson B., Heasman J., Stewart G., Cormack S. (2010) Movement pattern comparisons in elite (AFL) and sub-elite (WAFL) Australian football games using GPS. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 13, 618-623. Crossref
|
Brini S., Boullosa D., Calleja-González J., Ramirez-Campillo R., Nobari H., Castagna C., Clemente FM, Ardigò LP. (2023) Neuromuscular and balance adaptations following basketball-specific training programs based on combined drop jump and multidirectional repeated sprint versus multidirectional plyometric training. Plos One 18, e0283026. Crossref
|
Brini S., Boullosa D., Calleja-González J., van den Hoek D.J., Nobari H., Clemente F.M. (2022) Impact of combined versus single-mode training programs based on drop jump and specific multidirectional repeated sprint on bio-motor ability adaptations: a parallel study design in professional basketball players. BMC Sports Science Medicine and Rehabilitation 14, 160. Crossref
|
Buchheit M., Bishop D., Haydar B., Nakamura F.Y., Ahmaidi S. (2010a) Physiological responses to shuttle repeated-sprint running. International Journal of Sports Medicine 31, 402-409. Crossref
|
Buchheit M., Mendez-Villanueva A. (2014) Changes in repeated-sprint performance in relation to change in locomotor profile in highly-trained young soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences 32, 1309-1317. Crossref
|
Buchheit M., Mendez-Villanueva A., Delhomel G., Brughelli M., Ahmaidi S. (2010b) Improving repeated sprint ability in young elite soccer players: repeated shuttle sprints vs. explosive strength training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24, 2715-2722. Crossref
|
Buchheit M., Mendez-Villanueva A., Quod M., Quesnel T., Ahmaidi S. (2010c) Improving acceleration and repeated sprint ability in well-trained adolescent handball players: speed versus sprint interval training. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 5, 152-164. Crossref
|
Buchheit M., Mendez-villanueva A., Simpson B.M., Bourdon P.C. (2010d) Repeated-sprint sequences during youth soccer matches. International Journal of Sports Medicine 31, 709-716. Crossref
|
Carling C., Le Gall F., Dupont G. (2012) Analysis of repeated high-intensity running performance in professional soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences 30, 325-336. Crossref
|
Castagna C., Lorenzo F., Krustrup P., Fernandes-da-Silva J., Póvoas S.C.A., Bernardini A., D’Ottavio S. (2018) Reliability Characteristics and Applicability of a Repeated Sprint Ability Test in Young Male Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 32, 1538-1544. Crossref
|
Chaabene H., Negra Y., Moran J., Prieske O., Sammoud S., Ramirez-Campillo R., Granacher U. (2021) Plyometric Training Improves Not Only Measures of Linear Speed, Power, and Change-of-Direction Speed But Also Repeated Sprint Ability in Young Female Handball Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 35, 2230-2235. Crossref
|
Coffey V.G., Jemiolo B., Edge J., Garnham A.P., Trappe S.W., Hawley J.A. (2009) Effect of consecutive repeated sprint and resistance exercise bouts on acute adaptive responses in human skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 297, R1441-1451. Crossref
|
Considine J., Shaban R.Z., Fry M., Curtis K. (2017) Evidence based emergency nursing: Designing a research question and searching the literature. International Emergency Nursing 32, 78-82. Crossref
|
Cormier P., Freitas T., Loturco I., Turner A., Virgile A., Haff G., Blazevich AJ, Agar-Newman D, Henneberry M, Baker DG, McGuigan M, Alcaraz PE, Bishop C. (2022) Within Session Exercise Sequencing During Programming for Complex Training: Historical Perspectives, Terminology, and Training Considerations. Sports Medicine 52, 2371-2389. Crossref
|
Cumpston M., Li T., Page M.J., Chandler J., Welch V.A., Higgins J.P., Thomas J. (2019) Updated guidance for trusted systematic reviews: a new edition of the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 10, ED000142. Crossref
|
Davies G., Riemann B.L., Manske R. (2015) Current Concepts Of Plyometric Exercise. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy 10, 760-786.
|
Derraa Y, Malek R. (2023) The effect of combined plyometric training and sprint with change of direction on repeated change of direction and repeated sprint ability in U19 soccer players. The Challenge 15, 553-568.
|
DerSimonian R., Laird N. (1986) Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials 7, 177-188. Crossref
|
Dos'Santos T., McBurnie A., Thomas C., Comfort P., Jones P.A. (2020) Biomechanical Determinants of the Modified and Traditional 505 Change of Direction Speed Test. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 34, 1285-1296. Crossref
|
Dos'Santos T., Thomas C., McBurnie A., Comfort P., Jones P.A. (2021) Change of Direction Speed and Technique Modification Training Improves 180° Turning Performance, Kinetics, and Kinematics. Sports (Basel, Switzerland) 9, 73. Crossref
|
Ebben W.P. (2002) Complex Training: A Brief Review. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine 1, 42-46.
|
Edge J., Hill-Haas S., Goodman C., Bishop D. (2006) Effects of resistance training on H+ regulation, buffer capacity, and repeated sprints. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 38, 2004-2011. Crossref
|
Egger M., Davey Smith G., Schneider M., Minder C. (1997) Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ (British Medical Journal.) 315, 629-634. Crossref
|
Faude O., Koch T., Meyer T. (2012) Straight sprinting is the most frequent action in goal situations in professional football. Journal of Sports Sciences 30, 625-631. Crossref
|
Faude O., Roth R., Di Giovine D., Zahner L., Donath L. (2013) Combined strength and power training in high-level amateur football during the competitive season: a randomised-controlled trial. Journal of Sports Sciences 31, 1460-1467. Crossref
|
Ferrari Bravo D., Impellizzeri F.M., Rampinini E., Castagna C., Bishop D., Wisloff U. (2008) Sprint vs. interval training in football. International Journal of Sports Medicine 29, 668-674. Crossref
|
Fischetti F., Cataldi S., Greco G. (2019) A combined plyometric and resistance training program improves fitness performance in 12 to 14-years-old boys. Sport Sciences for Health 15, 615-621. Crossref
|
Gaamouri N., Hammami M., Cherni Y., Rosemann T., Knechtle B., Chelly M.S., van den Tillaar R. (2023a) The effects of 10-week plyometric training program on athletic performance in youth female handball players. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 5, 1193026. Crossref
|
Gaamouri N., Hammami M., Shephard R.J., Chelly M.S., Knechtle B., Suzuki K., Gaied S. (2023b) Effects of brief periods of combined plyometric exercise and high intensity running training on the fitness performance of male U17 handball players. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching 18, 801-811. Crossref
|
Gabbett T.J. (2007) Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of elite women rugby league players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 21, 875-881. Crossref
|
Gharbi Z., Dardouri W., Haj-Sassi R., Chamari K., Souissi N. (2015) Aerobic and anaerobic determinants of repeated sprint ability in team sports athletes. Biology of Sport 32, 207-212. Crossref
|
Girard O., Mendez-Villanueva A., Bishop D. (2011) Repeated-Sprint Ability - Part I Factors Contributing to Fatigue. Sports Medicine 41, 673-694. Crossref
|
Glaister M. (2005) Multiple sprint work : physiological responses, mechanisms of fatigue and the influence of aerobic fitness. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) 35, 757-777. Crossref
|
Grgic J., Schoenfeld B.J., Mikulic P. (2021) Effects of plyometric vs. resistance training on skeletal muscle hypertrophy: A review. Journal of Sport and Health Science 10, 530-536. Crossref
|
Guadalupe-Grau A., Perez-Gomez J., Olmedillas H., Chavarren J., Dorado C., Santana A., Calbet J. A. (2009) Strength training combined with plyometric jumps in adults: sex differences in fat-bone axis adaptations. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985) 106, 1100-1111. Crossref
|
Hammami M., Gaamouri N., Aloui G., Shephard R.J., Chelly M.S. (2019a) Effects of a Complex Strength-Training Program on Athletic Performance of Junior Female Handball Players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 14, 163-169. Crossref
|
Hammami M., Gaamouri N., Aloui G., Shephard R.J., Chelly M.S. (2019b) Effects of Combined Plyometric and Short Sprint With Change-of-Direction Training on Athletic Performance of Male U15 Handball Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 33, 662-675. Crossref
|
Hammami M., Negra Y., Shephard R.J., Chelly M.S. (2017) The Effect of Standard Strength vs. Contrast Strength Training on the Development of Sprint, Agility, Repeated Change of Direction, and Jump in Junior Male Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 31, 901-912. Crossref
|
Haseler L.J., Hogan M.C., Richardson R.S. (1999) Skeletal muscle phosphocreatine recovery in exercise-trained humans is dependent on O2 availability. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985) 86, 2013-2018. Crossref
|
Haugen T., Seiler S., Sandbakk Ø., Tønnessen E. (2019) The Training and Development of Elite Sprint Performance: an Integration of Scientific and Best Practice Literature. Sports Medicine - Open 5, 44. Crossref
|
Higgins, J.P., Savović, J., Page, M.J., Elbers, R.G. and Sterne, J.A. (2019)
Assessing risk of bias in a randomized trial. In: Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd. 205-228. Crossref
|
Hill-Haas S., Bishop D., Dawson B., Goodman C., Edge J. (2007) Effects of rest interval during high-repetition resistance training on strength, aerobic fitness, and repeated-sprint ability. Journal of Sports Sciences 25, 619-628. Crossref
|
Hoffman J.R., Cooper J., Wendell M., Kang J. (2004) Comparison of Olympic vs. traditional power lifting training programs in football players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 18, 129-135. Crossref
|
Hoffmann J.J., Reed J.P., Leiting K., Chiang C.-Y., Stone M.H. (2014) Repeated sprints, high-intensity interval training, small-sided games: theory and application to field sports. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9, 352-357. Crossref
|
Hopkins W., Batterham A. (2018) Improving Meta-analyses in Sport and Exercise. Sportscience 22, 11-17.
|
Hopkins W.G., Marshall S.W., Batterham A.M., Hanin J. (2009) Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 41, 3-13. Crossref
|
Hughes W., Healy R., Lyons M., Nevill A., Higginbotham C., Lane A., Beattie K. (2023) The Effect of Different Strength Training Modalities on Sprint Performance in Female Team-Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine 53, 993-1015. Crossref
|
Ingebrigtsen J., Brochmann M., Castagna C., Bradley P.S., Ade J., Krustrup P., Holtermann A. (2014) Relationships between field performance tests in high-level soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28, 942-949. Crossref
|
Kobal R., Loturco I., Barroso R., Gil S., Cuniyochi R., Ugrinowitsch C., Roschel H., Tricoli V. (2017) Effects of Different Combinations of Strength, Power, and Plyometric Training on the Physical Performance of Elite Young Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 31, 1468-1476. Crossref
|
Krustrup P., Zebis M., Jensen J.M., Mohr M. (2010) Game-induced fatigue patterns in elite female soccer. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24, 437-441. Crossref
|
Kyles A., Oliver J.L., Cahill M.J., Lloyd R.S., Pedley J. (2023) Linear and Change of Direction Repeated Sprint Ability Tests: A Systematic Review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 37, 1703-1717. Crossref
|
Lockie R.G., Liu T.M., Stage A.A., Lazar A., Giuliano D.V., Hurley J.M., Torne I. A., Beiley M. D., Birmingham-Babauta S. A., Stokes J. J., Risso F. G., Davis D. L., Moreno M. R., Orjalo A. J. (2020) Assessing Repeated-Sprint Ability in Division I Collegiate Women Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 34, 2015-2023. Crossref
|
Lockie R.G., Moreno M.R., Orjalo A.J., Stage A.A., Liu T.M., Birmingham-Babauta S.A., Hurley J. M., Torne I. A., Beiley M. D., Risso F. G., Davis D. L., Lazar A., Stokes J. J., Giuliano D. V. (2019) Repeated-Sprint Ability in Division I Collegiate Male Soccer Players: Positional Differences and Relationships With Performance Tests. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 33, 1362-1370. Crossref
|
Lockie R.G., Murphy A.J., Schultz A.B., Knight T.J., Janse de , Jonge X.A.K. (2012) The effects of different speed training protocols on sprint acceleration kinematics and muscle strength and power in field sport athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26, 1539-1550. Crossref
|
Loturco I., Contreras B., Kobal R., Fernandes V., Moura N., Siqueira F., Winckler C., Suchomel T., Pereira L. A. (2018) Vertically and horizontally directed muscle power exercises: Relationships with top-level sprint performance. Plos One 13, e0201475. Crossref
|
Malisoux L., Francaux M., Nielens H., Theisen D. (2006) Stretch-shortening cycle exercises: an effective training paradigm to enhance power output of human single muscle fibers. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.: 1985) 100, 771-779. Crossref
|
Markovic G., Mikulic P. (2010) Neuro-musculoskeletal and performance adaptations to lower-extremity plyometric training. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) 40, 859-895. Crossref
|
McGawley K., Bishop D.J. (2015) Oxygen uptake during repeated-sprint exercise. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 18, 214-218. Crossref
|
Miranda González C.E., Rago V., Silva J., Rebelo A. (2021) Effects of traditional vs. complex strength training added to regular football training on physical capacities in U19 football players: a team study. Sport Sciences for Health 18, 3. Crossref
|
Mohr M., Krustrup P., Nielsen J.J., Nybo L., Rasmussen M.K., Juel C., Bangsbo J. (2007) Effect of two different intense training regimens on skeletal muscle ion transport proteins and fatigue development. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 292, 1594-1602. Crossref
|
Nagashima K., Noma H., Furukawa T.A. (2019) Prediction intervals for random-effects meta-analysis: A confidence distribution approach. Statistical Methods in Medical Research 28, 1689-1702. Crossref
|
Nakagawa S., Noble D.W.A., Senior A.M., Lagisz M. (2017) Meta-evaluation of meta-analysis: ten appraisal questions for biologists. BMC Biology 15, 18. Crossref
|
Negra Y., Chaabene H., Fernandez-Fernandez J., Sammoud S., Bouguezzi R., Prieske O., Granacher U. (2020) Short-Term Plyometric Jump Training Improves Repeated-Sprint Ability in Prepuberal Male Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 34, 3241-3249. Crossref
|
Nicholson B., Dinsdale A., Jones B., Till K. (2021) The Training of Short Distance Sprint Performance in Football Code Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine 51. Crossref
|
Nygaard Falch H., Guldteig Rædergård H., Van Den Tillaar R. (2019) Effect of Different Physical Training Forms on Change of Direction Ability: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Medicine - Open 5, 53. Crossref
|
Oliver J., Ramachandran A.K., Singh U., Ramirez-Campillo R., Lloyd R. (2023) The Effects of Strength, Plyometric and Combined Training on Strength, Power and Speed Characteristics in High-Level, Highly Trained Male Youth Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine 54, 623-643. Crossref
|
Padulo J., Tabben M., Ardigò L.P., Ionel M., Popa C., Gevat C., Zagatto A. M., Dello Iacono A. (2015) Repeated sprint ability related to recovery time in young soccer players. Research in Sports Medicine (Print) 23, 412-423. Crossref
|
Page M.J., Moher D., Bossuyt P.M., Boutron I., Hoffmann T.C., Mulrow C.D., Shamseer L., Tetzlaff J. M., Akl E. A., Brennan S. E., Chou R., Glanville J., Grimshaw J. M., Hróbjartsson A., Lalu M. M., Li T., Loder E. W., Mayo-Wilson E., McDonald S., McGuinness L. A., McKenzie J. E. (2021) PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ (British Medical Journal.) 372, 160. Crossref
|
Peters J.L., Sutton A.J., Jones D.R., Abrams K.R., Rushton L. (2008) Contour-enhanced meta-analysis funnel plots help distinguish publication bias from other causes of asymmetry. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 61, 991-996. Crossref
|
Prieske O., Behrens M., Chaabene H., Granacher U., Maffiuletti N.A. (2020) Time to Differentiate Postactivation “Potentiation” from “Performance Enhancement” in the Strength and Conditioning Community. Sports Medicine 50, 1559-1565. Crossref
|
Radnor J.M., Oliver J.L., Waugh C.M., Myer G.D., Moore I.S., Lloyd R.S. (2018) The Influence of Growth and Maturation on Stretch-Shortening Cycle Function in Youth. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) 48, 57-71. Crossref
|
Ramirez-Campillo R., Gentil P., Negra Y., Grgic J., Girard O. (2021) . Sports Medicine 51, 2165-2179. Crossref
|
Rampinini E., Coutts A., Castagna C., Sassi R., Impellizzeri F. (2007) Variation in Top Level Soccer Match Performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine 28, 1018-10124. Crossref
|
Rampinini E., Sassi A., Morelli A., Mazzoni S., Fanchini M., Coutts A.J. (2009) Repeated-sprint ability in professional and amateur soccer players. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism = Physiologie Appliquee, Nutrition Et Metabolisme 34, 1048-1054. Crossref
|
Reilly T., Morris T., Whyte G. (2009) The specificity of training prescription and physiological assessment: a review. Journal of Sports Sciences 27, 575-589. Crossref
|
Ribeiro J., Afonso J., Camões M., Sarmento H., Sá M., Lima R., Oliveira R., Clemente F. M. (2021) Methodological Characteristics, Physiological and Physical Effects, and Future Directions for Combined Training in Soccer: A Systematic Review. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland) 9, 1075. Crossref
|
Robbins D.W. (2005) Postactivation potentiation and its practical applicability: a brief review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19, 453-458. Crossref
|
Ronnestad B.R., Kvamme N.H., Sunde A., Raastad T. (2008) Short-term effects of strength and plyometric training on sprint and jump performance in professional soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22, 773-780. Crossref
|
Sale D.G. (2002) Postactivation potentiation: role in human performance. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 30, 138-143. Crossref
|
Sanchez-Sanchez J., Gonzalo-Skok O., Carretero M., Pineda A., Ramirez-Campillo R., Nakamura F.Y. (2019) Effects of concurrent eccentric overload and high-intensity interval training on team sports players' performance. Kinesiology 51, 119-126. Crossref
|
Schimpchen J., Skorski S., Nopp S., Meyer T. (2016) Are “classical” tests of repeated-sprint ability in football externally valid? A new approach to determine in-game sprinting behaviour in elite football players. Journal of Sports Sciences 34, 519-526. Crossref
|
Schneiker, K., Bishop, D. and Burnett, A. (2008) The effects of high-intensity interval training vs intermittent sprint training on physiological capacities important for team sport performance. Science and nutrition in exercise and sport. Melbourne (VIC): Exercise
Sport Science Australia.
|
Schünemann H., Higgins J.P.T., Vist G., Glasziou P., Akl E., Skoetz N., Guyatt G.H. (2019) Completing ‘Summary of findings’ tables and grading the certainty of the evidence. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions , 375-402. Crossref
|
Silva J.R., Nassis G.P., Rebelo A. (2015) Strength training in soccer with a specific focus on highly trained players. Sports Medicine - Open 1, 17. Crossref
|
Slimani M., Chamari K., Miarka B., Del Vecchio F.B., Chéour F. (2016) Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review. Journal of Human Kinetics 53, 231-247. Crossref
|
Spencer M., Bishop D., Dawson B., Goodman C. (2005) Physiological and metabolic responses of repeated-sprint activities:specific to field-based team sports. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) 35, 1025-1044. Crossref
|
Spineti J., Figueiredo T., Bastos De Oliveira V., Assis M., Fernandes De Oliveira L., Miranda H., Machado de Ribeiro Reis V. M., Simão R. (2016) Comparison between traditional strength training and complex contrast training on repeated sprint ability and muscle architecture in elite soccer players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 56, 1269-1278.
|
Stone M.H. (1993) Position Statement: Explosive Exercise and Training. Strength & Conditioning Journal 15, 7-15.
|
Stølen T., Chamari K., Castagna C., Wisløff U. (2005) Physiology of soccer: an update. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) 35, 501-536. Crossref
|
Støren O., Helgerud J., Støa E.M., Hoff J. (2008) Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 40, 1087-1092. Crossref
|
Sweeting A.J., Aughey R.J., Cormack S.J., Morgan S. (2017) Discovering frequently recurring movement sequences in team-sport athlete spatiotemporal data. Journal of Sports Sciences 35, 2439-2445. Crossref
|
Taube W., Leukel C., Gollhofer A. (2012) How Neurons Make Us Jump: The Neural Control of Stretch-Shortening Cycle Movements. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 40, 106. Crossref
|
Taylor J., Macpherson T., Spears I., Weston M. (2015) The Effects of Repeated-Sprint Training on Field-Based Fitness Measures: A Meta-Analysis of Controlled and Non-Controlled Trials. Sports Medicine 45, 881-891. Crossref
|
Thapa R., Narvariya P., Weldon A., Talukdar K., Ramirez-Campillo R. (2022) Can complex contrast training interventions improve aerobic endurance, maximal strength, and repeated sprint ability in soccer players? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Montenegrin Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 11, 45-55. Crossref
|
Thurlow F., Huynh M., Townshend A., McLaren S.J., James L.P., Taylor J.M., Weston M., Weakley J. (2023) The Effects of Repeated-Sprint Training on Physical Fitness and Physiological Adaptation in Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine 54, 953-974. Crossref
|
Torres-Torrelo J., Rodríguez-Rosell D., González-Badillo J.J. (2017) Light-load maximal lifting velocity full squat training program improves important physical and skill characteristics in futsal players. Journal of Sports Sciences 35, 967-975. Crossref
|
Torres-Torrelo J., Rodríguez-Rosell D., Mora-Custodio R., Pareja-Blanco F., Yañez-García J.M., González-Badillo J.J. (2018) Effects of Resistance Training and Combined Training Program on Repeated Sprint Ability in Futsal Players. International Journal of Sports Medicine 39, 517-526. Crossref
|
Tricoli V., Lamas L., Carnevale R., Ugrinowitsch C. (2005) Short-term effects on lower-body functional power development: weightlifting vs. vertical jump training programs. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 19, 433-437. Crossref
|
Turner A., Stewart P. (2013) Repeat Sprint Ability. Strength and Conditioning Journal 35, 37-41. Crossref
|
Uysal H. Ş., Dalkiran O., Korkmaz S., Akyildiz Z., Nobari H., Clemente F.M. (2023) The Effect of Combined Strength Training on Vertical Jump Performance in Young Basketball Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Strength & Conditioning Journal 45, 554-567. Crossref
|
Viechtbauer W. (2010) Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with The metafor Package. Journal of Statistical Software 36. Crossref
|
Zghal F., Colson S.S., Blain G., Behm D.G., Granacher U., Chaouachi A. (2019) Combined Resistance and Plyometric Training Is More Effective Than Plyometric Training Alone for Improving Physical Fitness of Pubertal Soccer Players. Frontiers in Physiology 10, 1026. Crossref
|
|
|
|
|
|
|